Bone

src: www.interactive-biology.com

A bone is a rigid organ that is part of the backbone. Bones support and protect various organs, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility. Bones come in different shapes and sizes and have complex internal and external structures. They are light but strong and hard, and serve many functions.

The bone tissue (osseous tissue) is a hard tissue, a kind of solid connective tissue. It has a matrix like internal honeycomb, which helps to provide bone stiffness. Bone tissue consists of various types of bone cells. Osteoblasts and osteocytes are involved in bone formation and mineralization; osteoclasts are involved in resorption of bone tissue. Osteoblasts are modified (flattened) into coating cells that form a protective layer on the bone surface. The mineral matrix of bone tissue has an especially collagenic organic component called ossein and an inorganic component of bone mineral consisting of various salts. Bone tissue is a mineralized tissue of two types, cortical bone and cancellous bone. Other types of tissue found in bone include bone marrow, endosteum, periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage.

In the human body at birth, there are more than 270 bones, but many of these fuses together during development, leaving a total of 206 bones apart in adults, excluding many small sesamoid bones. The largest bone in the body is the femur or thighbone, and the smallest is the hole in the middle ear.

The Latin word for bone is os , so many terms use it as a prefix - such as osseous and osteopathy.

Video Bone

Structure

Bones are not uniformly solid, but include a difficult matrix. This matrix makes up about 30% of the bones and the other 70% is the salt that gives it power. This matrix consists of between 90 and 95% of collagen fibers, and the remainder is the basic substance. The main tissue of bone, bone tissue (osseous tissue), is relatively hard and light. The matrix consists mainly of composite materials that incorporate inorganic calcium phosphate minerals in a chemical arrangement called calcium hydroxylapatite (this is a bone mineral that gives them bone stiffness) and collagen, an elastic protein that increases fracture resistance. Bone collagen is known as ossein. The bone is formed by hardening this matrix around the trapped cell. When these cells are trapped from osteoblasts they become osteocytes.

Cortical bone

The outer layer of hard bone composed of cortical bone is also called a compact bone that is much denser than a cancellous bone. This forms the hard exterior (cortical) bone. Cortical bone produces bone that is smooth, white, and solid, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of the adult human skeleton. It facilitates the main functions of the bone: to support the whole body, to protect the organs, provide levers for movement, and store and release chemical elements, especially calcium. It consists of several microscopic columns, each called an osteon. Each column is some layer of osteoblasts and osteocytes around the central canal called the haversia canal. The Volkmann channel at right angles connects the osteon together. The columns are metabolically active, and when the bone is reabsorbed and creates the properties and location of the cells inside the osteon will change. The cortical bone is covered by the periosteum on its outer surface, and the endosteum on its inner surface. The endosteum is the boundary between the cortical bone and the cancellous bone. The major anatomical and functional unit of the cortical bone is osteon.

Cancellous bone

Cancellous bone, also called trabecular bone or sponge, is an internal skeletal bone tissue and is an open cell porous tissue. Cancellous bone has a higher surface-to-volume surface area ratio than cortical bone because it is more dense. This makes it weaker and more flexible. Larger surface areas also make it suitable for metabolic activities such as calcium ion exchange. Cancellous bone is usually found at the end of long bones, near the joints and on the inside of the spine. Cancellous bones are very vascular and often contain red bone marrow where haematopoiesis, the production of blood cells, occurs. The main anatomical and functional unit of the cancellous bone is trabeculae. Trabecula is parallel to the mechanical load distribution experienced by the bones in long bones like the femur. As far as the short bones are concerned, the trabecular juxtaposition has been studied on the vertebral pedicles. The thin formation of osteoblasts covered in the endosteum creates irregular spaces of tissue, known as trabeculae. In these spaces are bone marrow and hematopoietic stem cells that cause platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. The trabecular marrow consists of a network of trunk elements and plates that make the whole organ lighter and allow space for blood vessels and marrow. The trabecular bone accounts for 20% of the total bone mass but has nearly ten times the surface area of ​​the compact bone.

The cancellous and trabecular words refer to a small grid-shaped unit (trabeculae) that forms the network. It was first described accurately in the carving of CrisÃÆ'³stomo Martinez.

Marrow

The bone marrow, also known as myeloid tissue in the red bone marrow, can be found in almost all bones that hold the cancellous tissue. In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow or hematopoietic marrow, but when the child ages the hematopoietic fraction decreases in the quantity and the fat/yellow fraction called the marrow adipose tissue (MAT) increases the quantity. In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the bone marrow of the femur, ribs, spine and pelvic bone.

The bone network

Bone is a metabolic active tissue consisting of several cell types. These cells include osteoblasts, which are involved in the creation and mineralization of bone tissue, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, which are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue. Osteoblasts and osteocytes originate from osteoprogenitor cells, but osteoclasts originate from the same cells that differentiate to form macrophages and monocytes. In the bone marrow there are also hematopoietic stem cells. These cells give rise to other cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.

Osteoblast

• Osteoblasts are mononucleic bone-forming cells. They are located on the surface of the osteon layer and make a mixture of proteins known as osteids, which mine to become bones. The osteoid layer is a narrow area of ​​a newly formed, mineralized, yet mineralized organic matrix located on the surface of the bone. Osteoid consists mainly of type I collagen. Osteoblasts also produce hormones, such as prostaglandins, to act on the bone itself. Osteoblasts create and repair new bones by actually building around themselves. First, osteoblasts are putting up collagen fibers. This collagen fiber is used as an osteoblast framework. Osteoblasts then store calcium phosphate which is hardened by hydroxide ions and bicarbonate. The new bone created by osteoblasts is called osteoid. Once the osteoblast finishes working, it is actually trapped inside the bone after it hardens. When the osteoblast is trapped, it is known as osteocytes. Other osteoblasts remain at the top of the new bone and are used to protect the underlying bones, these are known as coating cells.

Osteocyte

Most osteocytes are inactive osteoblasts. Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts that have migrated inward and are trapped and surrounded by their own bone matrix. The space they occupy is known as lacunae. Osteocytes have many processes that reach out to meet osteoblasts and other osteocytes possible for communication purposes. Osteocytes remain in contact with other cells in the bone through the gap junction - a coupled cell process - that passes through a small channel in a bone matrix called canaliculi.

Osteoclast

• Osteoclasts are very large multinucleated cells that are responsible for breaking bones by the bone resorption process. The new bone is then formed by the osteoblast. Bone is constantly overhauled by osteoclast resorption and created by osteoblasts. Osteoclasts are large cells with many nuclei located on the surface of the bone in a place called lacunae Howship (or

  resorption pit ). This lacunae is the result of surrounding bone tissue that has been reabsorbed. Because osteoclasts originate from the lineage of monocyte stem cells, they are equipped with a phagocytic-like mechanism similar to circulating macrophages. Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to the discrete bone surface. On arrival, active enzymes, such as tartaric acid phosphatase are resistant, are secreted against mineral substrates. Bone reabsorption by osteoclasts also plays a role in calcium homeostasis.

Extracellular matrix

Bones are made up of living cells embedded in a mineralized organic matrix. This matrix consists of organic components, especially Type I collagen - "organic" refers to the resulting material as a result of the human body - and inorganic components, especially hydroxyapatite and other calcium and phosphate salts. Above 30% of the bleed ascellular portion consists of organic components, and 70% salt. Collagen fibers provide the bones of their tensile strength, and the interspersed hydroxyapatite crystals provide compressive strength to the bone. This effect is synergistic.

Inorganic composition of bone (bone mineral) is mainly formed from calcium and phosphate salts, the main salt is hydroxyapatite (Ca ₁₀ (PO ₄ ) ₆ (OH ) ₂ ). The exact composition of the matrix may change over time because of nutrients and biomineralization, with the ratio of calcium to phosphate varying between 1.3 and 2.0 (by weight), and trace minerals such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and carbonate are also found.

Type I collagen forms 90-95% of the organic matrix, with the remainder of the matrix being a homogeneous liquid called a basic substance consisting of proteoglycans such as hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulphate, as well as a non-protein -kolagen such as osteocalcin, osteopontin or bone sialoprotein. Collagen consists of repeating unit strands, which provide bone pull strength, and are arranged in overlapping modes that prevent shear stress. The function of the basic substance is not fully known. Two types of bones can be microscopically identified according to the arrangement of collagen: woven and flat.

• Bone fabrics, (also known as fibrous bones) are characterized by a haphazard organization of collagen fibers and are mechanically weak
• Lamellar bone, which has a regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets ("lamellae") and is mechanically strong

Woven bone is produced when the osteoblast produces osteoid rapidly, which occurs initially in all fetal bones, but is subsequently replaced by a more resistant flat bone. In adults the woven bone is made after a fracture or in Paget's disease. Woven bones are weaker, with less randomly oriented collagen fibers, but they form rapidly; for the appearance of fibrous matrix this is the bone called woven . Immediately replaced by flat bones, which are highly organized in concentric sheets with a much lower proportion of osteocytes to surrounding tissues. The lamellar bone, which makes the first appearance in humans in the fetus during the third trimester, is stronger and filled with many collagen fibers parallel to other fibers in the same layer (this parallel column is called osteon). In cross section, the fibers run in opposite directions in alternating layers, such as in plywood, helping the bone's ability to withstand torsional forces. After a fracture, the woven bone is formed initially and gradually replaced by a flat bone during a process known as "bone substitution." Compared to the woven bone, the formation of flat bone takes place more slowly. Regular collagen fiber deposition limits osteoid formation to about 1 to 2 Âμm per day. The lamellar bone also requires a relatively flat surface to lay collagen fibers in parallel or concentric layers.

Deposition

The extracellular matrix of bone is placed by the osteoblasts, which secrete both collagen and substance. It synthesizes collagen inside the cell, and then secretes collagen fibrils. Collagen fibers quickly polymerize to form collagen strands. At this stage they have not been mineralized, and are called "osteoid". Around the strands of calcium and phosphate settles on the surface of this strand, within a few days to a week becomes a hydroxyapatite crystal.

For bone mineralization, osteoblasts secrete vesicles containing alkaline phosphatase. It breaks the phosphate group and acts as a focus for calcium and phosphate deposition. The vesicles then rupture and act as a crystal center to grow. More specifically, bone minerals are formed from globular structures and plates.

Type

There are five types of bones in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.

• Long bones are marked by axis, diaphisis, which is much longer than the width; and with epiphysis, a round head at each end of the stem. They are mostly composed of compact bones, with fewer marrow numbers, located within the medullary cavity, and the spongy area, the cancellous bone at the end of the bone. Some of the bones of the limbs, including the fingers and toes, are long bones. The exceptions are the eight carpal bones of the wrist, the seven tarsal bones articulate from the ankle and the knee bone of kammaoid bone. Long bones like clavicles, which have different shafts or ends are also called modified bones.
• The short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and only have a thin layer of compact bone surrounding the sponge interior. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones.
• The flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bone flanking a layer of spongy bone. Most of the skull's bones are flat bones, like the sternum.
• The bone of selamoid is the bone embedded in the tendon. Because they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon increases and thus increases muscle leverage. Examples of sesamoid bone are patella and pisiform.
• Irregular bone does not fit the above categories. They consist of a thin layer of compact bone that surrounds the sponge interior. As the name implies, the shape is irregular and complex. Often these irregular shapes are caused by many centers of hardening or because they contain bone sinuses. The bones of the spine, pelvis, and some skull bones are irregular bones. Examples include ethmoid and sphenoid bones.

Terminology

In anatomical studies, anatomists use a number of anatomical terms to describe the appearance, shape and function of bone. Other anatomical terms are also used to describe the location of the bone. Like other anatomical terms, much of this comes from Latin and Greek. Some anatomists still use Latin to refer to bones. The term "osseous", and the "osteo-" prefix, referring to bone-related matters, is still in use today.

Some examples of terms used to describe bones include the term "foramen" to describe the hole through which something passes, and the "canal" or "meatus" to describe a tunnel-like structure. The bony protrusion may be called a number of terms, including "condyle", "crest", "spine", "eminence", "tubercle" or "tuberosity", depending on the shape and location of protrusion. In general, long bones are said to have "head", "neck", and "body".

When two bones join together, they are said to be "articulate". If both bones have fibrous connections and are relatively immobile, then the joints are called "stitches".

Maps Bone

Development

Bone formation is called ossification. During this stage of development the fetus occurs by two processes: intramembranous osification and endokhondral ossification. Intramembranous hardening involves bone formation from connective tissue whereas endochondral ossification involves bone formation of the cartilage.

Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during the formation of the skull's flat bone but also the lower jaw, upper jaw, and clavicle; bone formed from connective tissue such as mesenchyme tissue instead of cartilage. This process includes: development of hardening centers, calcification, trabecular formation and periosteum development.

Endotondral ossification occurs in long bones and most of the other bones in the body; this involves the development of bone from cartilage. This process includes the development of cartilage models, their growth and development, the development of primary and secondary ossification centers, and the formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plates.

Endokhondral hardening begins with points in the cartilage called the "primary ossification center." They mostly appear during fetal development, although some short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of diaphysis of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bone. Secondary hardening occurs after birth, and forms epiphyses of long bones and irregular and flat bony limbs. Dysphisis and both epiphytic long bones are separated by cartilage growth zones (epiphyseal plates). In bone maturity (18 to 25 years), all cartilage is replaced by bone, combining diaphyses and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure). In the upper limbs, only long bony diaphyses and stiff shoulder blades. Epiphyses, carpal bones, coracoid processes, medial border of the scapula, and acromion are still cartilaginous.

The following steps are followed in cartilage to bone conversion:

1. The backup cartilage zone. This area, the furthest from the marrow cavity, consists of a typical hyaline cartilage that has not shown any signs of turning into bone.
2. Cell proliferation zone. A little closer to the marrow cavity, chondrocytes multiply and organize themselves into longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae.
3. Cell hypertrophic zone. Furthermore, the chondrocytes stop splitting and begin to have hypertrophy (enlargement), as occurs in the primary hardening center of the fetus. The matrix wall between the lacunae becomes very thin.
4. Liming zone. Minerals are stored in a matrix between lacunae columns and calcified cartilage. This is not a permanent mineral deposit of bone, but only temporary support for cartilage will soon weaken due to damage from enlarged lacunae.
5. Bone deposition zone. In each column, the wall between the lacunae is damaged and chondrocytes die. It converts each column into a longitudinal channel, which is immediately attacked by blood vessels and marrow from the marrow cavity. Osteoblasts line up along this channel wall and begin storing the lamellae concentric matrix, while osteoclasts dissolve the temporary calcification cartilage.

src: img.chewy.com

Function

Bones have many functions:

Mechanical

Bones serve a variety of mechanical functions. Together the bones in the body form a skeleton. They provide a frame to keep the body supported, and an attachment point for skeletal muscle, tendons, ligaments and joints, which function together to produce and transfer strength so that individual or whole body parts can be manipulated in three-dimensional space (the interaction between the bones and muscles studied in biomechanics).

The bone protects the internal organs, such as the skull that protects the brain or the ribs that protect the heart and lungs. Because of the way bone is formed, bone has a high compressive strength of about 170 MPa (1800 kgf/cmÃ,²), poor tensile strength 104-121 MPa, and very low shear stress (51.6 MPa). This means that the bone refuses to push (compress) stress well, withstand tension (pulling) less well, but only badly rejects shear stress (such as due to torsional load). While bones are essentially fragile, bones do have a significant degree of elasticity, mainly due to collagen. The strength of macroscopic results of cancellous bone has been investigated using high-resolution computer models.

Mechanically, bone also has a special role in hearing. Osikel are three small bones in the middle ear that are involved in sound transduction.

Synthetic

The cancellous portion of the bone contains bone marrow. The bone marrow produces blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis. Blood cells made in the bone marrow include red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells. Progenitor cells such as hematopoietic stem cells divide in a process called mitosis to produce precursor cells. These include precursors that eventually cause white blood cells, and erythroblasts that give rise to red blood cells. Unlike red and white blood cells, created by mitosis, platelets are shed from very large cells called megakaryocytes. This progressive differentiation process takes place inside the bone marrow. Once the cells mature, they enter the circulation. Every day, more than 2.5 billion red blood cells and platelets, and 50-100 billion granulocytes are produced in this way.

In addition to creating cells, bone marrow is also one of the main sites where broken or old red blood cells are destroyed.

Metabolic

• Mineral storage - bones function as an essential mineral reserve for the body, especially calcium and phosphorus.

Ã, Â ° Determined by species, age, and bone type, bone cells form up to 15 percent of bone. Storage growth factor - mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors such as growth factors such as insulin, changing growth factors, bone morphogenetic proteins and others.

• Fat storage - floating adipose tissue (MAT) serves as a storage reserve of fatty acids.
• Base acid balance - buffers the bone of the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline salts.
• Detoxification - bone tissue can also store heavy metals and other foreign substances, remove them from the blood and reduce their effects on other tissues. This can later be gradually released for excretion.
• Endocrine organ - bone controls phosphate metabolism by releasing fibroblast-23 growth factor (FGF-23), which acts on the kidneys to reduce phosphate reabsorption. Bone cells also release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat accumulation. Osteocalcin increases insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to increasing the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing fat stores.
• Calcium balance - The process of bone resorption by osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. Due to the formation of the active bone improvement which circulates calcium in its mineral form, removes it from the bloodstream, resorption is actively unstable thus raising circulating calcium levels. This process occurs concurrently at a site-specific location.

Remodeling

Bones are constantly being created and replaced in a process known as remodeling. This continuous bone turnover is a process of resorption followed by bone replacement with slight form changes. This is achieved through osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Cells are stimulated by various signals, and together referred to as remodeling units. About 10% of the skeletal mass of an adult is rejuvenated every year. The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis, repair bone tissue damage from daily stress, and to form skeletons during growth. Repetitive stress, such as weight-bearing exercise or bone healing, results in bone thickening at the maximum stress points (Wolff's law). It has been hypothesized that this is a result of the piezoelectric nature of bone, which causes bone to produce small electrical potential under pressure.

The action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts is controlled by a number of chemical enzymes that promote or inhibit the activity of bone remodeling cells, controlling the rate at which bones are made, destroyed, or altered in shape. The cells also use paracrine signaling to control the activity of each other. For example, the rate at which osteoclasts absorb bone is blocked by calcitonin and osteoprotegerin. Calcitonin is produced by parafolicular cells in the thyroid gland, and can bind receptors to osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast activity. Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts and is able to bind RANK-L, inhibiting osteoclast stimulation.

Osteoblasts can also be stimulated to increase bone mass through increased osteoid secretion and by inhibiting osteoclast ability to destroy osseous tissue. Increased osteoid secretion is stimulated by growth hormone secretion by pituitary hormones, thyroid and sex hormones (estrogens and androgens). These hormones also promote increased osteoprotegerin secretion. Osteoblasts can also be induced to secrete a number of cytokines that promote bone resorption by stimulating osteoclast activity and differentiation of progenitor cells. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and stimulation of osteocytes induce osteoblasts to increase the secretion of RANK-ligand and interleukin 6, which cytokines then stimulate increased bone reabsorption by osteoclasts. These same compounds also increase the secretion of macrophage colony stimulating factors by osteoblasts, which promote the differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts, and decrease osteoprotegerin secretion.

Bone volume

Bone volume is determined by the rate of bone formation and bone resorption. Recent research has shown that certain growth factors can work to alter local bone formation by increasing osteoblast activity. Many of the inherited bone growth factors have been isolated and classified through bone culture. These factors include growth factors such as insulin I and II, altering beta-growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, thrombocyte-derived growth factor, and bone morphogenetic protein. Evidence suggests that bone cells produce growth factors for extracellular storage in bone matrix. The release of these growth factors from the bone matrix can lead to proliferation of osteoblast precursors. Basically, bone growth factors can act as a potential determinant of local bone formation. Studies have shown that the volume of cancellous bone in postpartopausal osteoporosis can be determined by the relationship between total surface bone formation and percentage of surface resorption.

src: i.ytimg.com

Clinical interests

A number of diseases can affect bone, including arthritis, fractures, infections, osteoporosis, and tumors. Conditions related to bone can be managed by various doctors, including rheumatologists for joints, and orthopedic surgeons, who may perform surgery to repair broken bones. Other doctors, such as rehabilitation specialists, can be involved in recovery, radiologists in interpreting findings on imaging, and pathologists in investigating the causes of illness, and family doctors may play a role in preventing complications of bone diseases such as osteoporosis.

When a doctor sees a patient, a history and a test will be taken. The bone is then often imaged, called radiography. These may include ultrasound X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans and other imaging such as Bone scans, which can be used to investigate cancer. Other tests such as blood tests for autoimmune markers can be taken, or synovial fluid aspiration may be taken.

Fracture

In normal bone, fracture occurs when there is significant strength applied, or repeated trauma for a long time. Fractures can also occur when the bone is weakened, such as with osteoporosis, or when there are structural problems, such as excessive bone remodel (such as Paget's disease) or a place of cancerous growth. Common fractures include fractures of the wrist and hip fractures, associated with osteoporosis, vertebral fractures associated with high-energy trauma and cancer, and long fractures. Not all fractures are painful. When serious, depending on the type and location of the fracture, complications may include flail chest, compartment syndrome or fat embolism. Compound fractures involve bone penetration through the skin. Some complex fractures can be treated with the use of bone grafting procedures that replace missing bone parts.

Fractures and causes can be investigated with X-rays, CT scans and MRI. The fracture is explained by its location and shape, and some classification systems exist, depending on the location of the fracture. A common long bone fracture in children is a Salter-Harris fracture. When fractures are managed, pain relievers are often given, and cracked areas are often immobilized. This is to promote bone healing. In addition, surgical measures such as internal fixation may be used. Due to immobilization, people with fractures are often advised to undergo rehabilitation.

Tumor

There are several types of tumors that can affect bone; examples of benign bone tumors include osteoma, osteoid osteoma, osteochondroma, osteoblastoma, enchondroma, giant bone cell tumors, and aneurysm bone cysts.

Cancer

Cancer can appear in bone tissue, and bone is also a common place for other cancers to spread (metastasize) to. Cancer that appears in the bones is called "primary" cancer, although such cancers are rare. Metastases in bone are "secondary" cancers, with the most common being breast, lung, prostate, thyroid, and kidney cancers. Secondary cancers that affect bone can destroy bones (called "lytic" cancer) or create bone ("sclerotic" cancer). Bone marrow cancer in bone can also affect bone tissue, for example including leukemia and multiple myeloma. Bones can also be affected by cancer in other parts of the body. Cancer in other parts of the body may release parathyroid hormone or peptide-related parathyroid hormone. It increases bone reabsorption, and can lead to fractures.

Bone tissue that is destroyed or altered by cancer is distorted, weakened, and more susceptible to fracture. This can cause spinal cord compression, destruction of the marrow that results in bruising, bleeding and immunosuppression, and is one of the causes of bone pain. If the cancer metastasizes, then there may be other symptoms depending on the location of the original cancer. Some bone cancers can also be felt.

Bone cancer is managed by type, stage, prognosis, and what symptoms it produces. Many primary bone cancers are treated with radiotherapy. Bone marrow cancer can be treated with chemotherapy, and other forms of targeted therapy such as immunotherapy may be used. Palliative care, which focuses on maximizing the quality of one's life, can play a role in management, especially if the likelihood of survival in five years is poor.

Painful condition

• Osteomyelitis is an inflammation of bone or bone marrow due to bacterial infection.
• Osteogenesis imperfecta
• Osteochondritis dissecans
• Arthritis
• Ankylosing spondylitis
• Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by excessive accumulation of fluoride in bone. In advanced cases, bone fluorosis damages bones and joints and is painful.

Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a bone disease in which there is a decrease in bone mineral density, increasing the chances of a fracture. Osteoporosis is defined in women by the World Health Organization as a bone mineral density of 2.5 standard deviations below the peak bone mass, relative to age and average matched by gender. This density was measured using dual absorptiometry X-ray energy (DEXA), with the term "established osteoporosis" including fracture fracture. Osteoporosis most commonly occurs in women after menopause, when it is called "postmenopausal osteoporosis", but can develop in premenopausal men and women in the presence of certain hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and drugs, especially glucocorticoids. Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs. For this reason, DEXA scans are often performed on people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and are at risk for fractures.

Osteoporosis treatments include suggestions for quitting smoking, reducing alcohol consumption, regular exercise, and a healthy diet. Calcium and trace mineral supplements can also be recommended, as are Vitamin D. When the drug is used, it may include bisphosphonates, Strontium ranelate, and hormone replacement therapy.

Osteopathy

Osteopathic medicine is a medical school of thought that was originally developed based on the notion of the relationship between the musculoskeletal system and overall health, but is now very similar to that of mainstream medicine. In 2012, more than 77,000 doctors in the United States are trained in osteopathic medical colleges.

src: cdn1.medicalnewstoday.com

Osteology

The study of bones and teeth is referred to as osteology. It is often used in anthropology, archeology, and forensics for various tasks. This may include determining the nutritional status, health, age or individual injuries of the bone taken. Preparing a healthy bone for this type of research can involve a maceration process.

Usually anthropologists and archaeologists study bone tools made by Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis . Bones can serve a number of uses such as projectile point or artistic pigment, and can also be made from external bone such as horns.

src: www.acumed.net

Other animals

The bird skeleton is very light. Their bones are smaller and thinner, to help the flight. Among the mammals, bats are closest to birds in terms of bone density, suggesting that small dense bones are a flight adaptation. Many bones of birds that have little bone marrow because of hollow.

The bird beak is mainly made of bone as a mandibular projection covered in keratin.

The deer antlers are made up of bones which are extraordinary examples of bone that are outside the skin of the animal when velvet is released.

The extinct predator fish Dunkleosteus has a sharp edges of bone that open aloud along its jaw.

Many animals have exoskeleton that is not made of bone. These include insects and crustaceans.

The proportion of cortical bone that is 80% in human skeletons may be much lower in other animals, especially in marine mammals and sea turtles, or in various Mesozoic sea reptiles, such as ichthyosaurus, among others.

Many animals are primarily herbivores that practice osteophages - eating bones. This is apparently done to replace phosphate deficiency.

Many bone diseases that affect humans also affect other vertebrates - an example of a disorder is skeletal flurosis.

src: study.com

Society and culture

The bones of a slaughtered animal have a number of uses. In prehistoric times, they have been used to make bone tools. They have been further used in bone carving, are already important in prehistoric art, and also in modern times as handicrafts for buttons, beads, handles, coils, calculating tools, head nuts, dice, poker chips, pick-up rods , ornaments, etc. A special genre is scrimshaw.

Bone glue can be made by boiling prolonged soil or cracked bone, followed by filtration and evaporation to thicken the resulting liquid. Historically, bone glue and other animal adhesives today have very little special use, such as antique restorations. Basically the same process, with further refinement, thickening and drying, is used to make gelatin.

Broth is made by boiling some ingredients for a long time, traditionally including bone.

Soil bone is used as organic phosphorus-nitrogen fertilizer and in addition to animal feed. Bone, especially after calcination to bone ash, is used as a source of calcium phosphate for bone production of china and previously also phosphorus chemicals.

Charcoal, porous, black, granular material is mainly used for filtration and also as a black pigment, produced by dried mammalian bones.

Oracle bones script is a writing system used in Ancient China based on inscriptions on the bones.

To show bones in a person is considered bad luck in some cultures, such as Australian aborigines, such as by Kurdaitcha.

The birds wishbones have been used for predictions, and are still commonly used in the tradition to determine which one of two people draws one of the bones of the branch can make a wish.

Source of the article : Wikipedia