Medical imaging

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Medical imaging is the technique and process of creating a visual representation of the body interior for clinical analysis and medical intervention, as well as visual representation of the function of multiple organs or tissues (physiology). Medical imaging seeks to reveal the internal structure hidden by the skin and bones, as well as to diagnose and treat disease. Medical imaging also establishes a normal anatomy and physiology database to allow for identifying abnormalities. Although disguised organ and tissue imaging may be performed for medical reasons, the procedure is usually considered part of the pathology rather than medical imaging.

As a discipline and in the broadest sense, it is part of biological imaging and incorporates radiology using X-ray imaging radiography technology, magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography or ultrasound, endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography and imaging techniques functional nuclear medicine as positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission tomography (SPECT).

The measurement and recording techniques that are not primarily designed to produce images, such as electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electrocardiography (ECG), etc. are other technologies that produce data that are vulnerable to representation as parameter graphs vs. time or map containing data about the measurement location. In a limited comparison, this technology can be considered as a form of medical imaging in other disciplines.

As of 2010, 5 billion medical imaging has been conducted worldwide. Radiation exposures from medical imaging in 2006 accounted for about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States.

Medical imaging is often considered to point to a series of techniques that non-invasively produce images of the internal aspects of the body. In this limited sense, medical imaging can be seen as a solution to mathematical inverse problems. This means that the cause (the properties of living tissue) is inferred from the effect (the observed signal). In the case of medical ultrasonography, the probe consists of ultrasonic pressure waves and echoes that enter into the network to show the internal structure. In the case of projection radiography, the probe uses X-ray radiation, which is absorbed at different levels by different tissue types such as bone, muscle and fat.

The term noninvasive is used to indicate a procedure in which no instrument is inserted into the patient's body which is the case for most of the imaging techniques employed.

Video Medical imaging

Imagery modality

In a clinical context, medical imaging of "invisible light" is generally equated with radiology or "clinical imaging" and the medical practitioner responsible for interpreting (and at times obtaining) the image is a radiologist. The "visible light" medical imaging involves digital video or still images that can be viewed without special equipment. Dermatology and wound care are two modalities that use visible light imaging. Diagnostic radiography shows the technical aspects of medical imaging and especially the acquisition of medical images. The radiographer or radiology technician is usually responsible for obtaining a diagnostic quality medical picture, although some radiological interventions are performed by radiologists.

As a field of scientific inquiry, medical imaging is a sub-discipline of biomedical engineering, medical physics or medicine depending on the context: Research and development in the field of instrumentation, image acquisition (eg, radiography), modeling and quantification usually preserving biomedical engineering, medical physics, and science computer; Research in the application and interpretation of medical images usually preserves radiology and medical sub-disciplines relevant to medical or medical conditions (neuroscience, cardiology, psychiatry, psychology, etc.) being investigated. Many of the techniques developed for medical imaging also have scientific and industrial applications.

Radiography

Two forms of radiographic images are being used in medical imaging. Radiographic projection and fluoroscopy, with the latter useful for catheter guidance. The 2D technique is still widely used despite the advent of 3D tomography due to its low cost, high resolution, and dependent application, lower radiation dose. This imaging modality utilizes a wide x-ray beam for image acquisition and is the first imaging technique available in modern medicine.

• Fluoroscopy produces a real-time image of the body's internal structure in a similar way to radiography, but uses constant x-rays input, at a lower dose rate. Contrast media, such as barium, iodine, and air are used to visualize internal organs as they work. Fluoroscopy is also used in guided procedures by drawing when constant feedback during the procedure is required. An image receptor is required to convert the radiation into an image after passing the desired area. At the beginning of this is a fluorescent screen, which gives way to the Image Amplifier (IA) which is a large vacuum tube that has a receiving end lined with cesium iodide, and a mirror on the opposite end. Finally the mirror is replaced with a TV camera.
• Radiographic projection , better known as x-rays, is often used to determine the type and degree of fracture and to detect pathological changes in the lungs. By using opaque radio-contrast media, such as barium, they can also be used to visualize the structure of the stomach and intestines - this can help diagnose ulcers or other types of colon cancer.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Magnetic resonance imaging

The magnetic resonance imaging device (MRI scanner), or nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMR) scanning "as it was originally known, uses powerful magnets to polarize and excite the hydrogen nuclei (ie, single proton) water molecules in human tissues, producing detectable signals which is spatially encoded, generates body images MRI machines emit radio frequency (RF) pulses at the resonant frequency of hydrogen atoms in water molecules.The radio frequency antenna (RF coils) sends pulses to the body area for examination RF pulses are absorbed by protons, causing its direction to the main magnetic field to change.When the RF pulse is turned off, the proton "relaxes" back into alignment with the main magnet and emits radio waves in the process.The radio frequency emission of hydrogen atoms in water is what is detected and reconstructed into an image. resonance of a rotating magnetic dipole (where proton is one example) called the Larmor frequency and is determined by the strength of the main magnetic field and the chemical environment of the core of interest. MRI uses three electromagnetic fields: a very strong static magnetic field (usually 1.5 to 3 tesl) to polarize the hydrogen nuclei, called the main field; a gradient field that can be modified to vary in space and time (on the order of 1 kHz) for spatial encoding, often simply called gradients; and a homogeneous spatial (RF) radio frequency field for manipulation of a hydrogen nucleus to produce a measured signal, collected through an RF antenna.

Like CT, MRI has traditionally created two-dimensional images of thin "slices" of the body and is therefore considered a technique of tomographic imaging. Modern MRI instruments are capable of producing images in the form of 3D blocks, which can be considered as generalizations of the concept of single-slice, tomographic ,. Unlike CT, MRI does not involve the use of ionizing radiation and is therefore unrelated to the same health hazards. For example, since MRI was only used since the early 1980s, no long-term effects are known from strong static field exposure (this is the subject of some debate, see 'Safety' in MRI) and therefore there is no limit to the number of scans which can be worn by individuals, in contrast to X-rays and CT. However, there are well-identified health risks associated with tissue warming from exposure to RF fields and presence of devices grown in the body, such as speed makers. These risks are strictly controlled as part of the instrument design and scanning protocol used.

Because CT and MRI are sensitive to different tissue properties, the image display obtained by the two techniques is very different. In CT, X-rays must be blocked by some form of solid tissue to create an image, so the image quality when looking at soft tissue will be bad. In MRI, while every nucleus with a clean nuclear spin can be used, the protons of the hydrogen atom remain the most widely used, especially in a clinical setting, because it is so ubiquitous and returns a large signal. This nucleus, present in water molecules, allows excellent soft tissue contrast achieved with MRI.

A number of different pulse sequences can be used for specific MRI diagnostic imaging (multiparametric MRI or mpMRI). It is possible to distinguish network characteristics by combining two or more of the following imaging sequences, depending on the information sought: T1-weighted (T1-MRI), T2-weighted (T2-MRI), weighted diffusion imaging (DWI-MRI), contrast enhancement dynamic (DCE-MRI), and spectroscopy (MRI-S). For example, prostate tumor imaging is better done with T2-MRI and DWI-MRI than T2-weighted imaging alone. The number of mpMRI applications for detecting disease in various organs continues to evolve, including liver studies, breast tumors, pancreatic tumors, and assessing the effects of vascular disorder agents on cancerous tumors.

Nuclear medicine

Nuclear medicine includes diagnostic imaging and treatment of diseases, and can also be referred to as molecular drugs or molecular imaging & amp; therapy. Nuclear drugs use certain properties of isotopes and energetic particles emitted from radioactive material to diagnose or treat pathologies. Unlike the typical concept of anatomical radiology, nuclear medicine allows the assessment of physiology. This function-based approach to medical evaluation has useful applications in most of its subspecialties, particularly oncology, neurology, and cardiology. Gamma Cameras and PET Scanners are used in eg. scintigraphy, SPECT, and PET to detect areas of biological activity that may be related to the disease. Isotopes are relatively short, such as ^99m Tc given to the patient. Isotopes are often absorbed preferentially by biologically active tissues in the body, and can be used to identify tumors or fracture points. The image is obtained after the collimated photon is detected by the crystal which gives the light signal, which in turn is amplified and converted into count data.

• Scintigraphy ("scint") is a form of diagnostic test in which radioisotopes are taken internally, for example intravenously or orally. Then, the gamma camera captures and forms a two-dimensional image of radiation emitted by radiopharmaceuticals.
• SPECT is a 3D tomography technique that uses gamma camera data from many projections and can be reconstructed in various fields. A dual detector head gamma camera is combined with a CT scanner, which provides localization of functional SPECT data, called SPECT-CT cameras, and has shown utility in advancing the field of molecular imaging. In most other medical imaging modalities, energy is passed through the body and the reaction or result is read by the detector. In SPECT imaging, patients are injected with radioisotopes, most commonly Thallium 201TI, Technetium 99mTC, Iodine 123I, and Gallium 67Ga. Radioactive gamma rays are emitted through the body when a natural decay process of this isotope occurs. The emission of gamma rays is captured by the detector that surrounds the body. This basically means that humans are now the source of radioactivity, not medical imaging devices like X-Ray or CT.
• Positron emission tomography (PET) uses accidental detection for the functional process of the image. Short-term positrile isotopes, such as ¹⁸ F, combined with organic substances such as glucose, create F18-fluorodeoxyglucose, which can be used as a marker of metabolic utilization. Images of the distribution of activity throughout the body can show rapidly growing tissues, such as tumors, metastases, or infections. PET images can be seen in comparison with computed tomography scans to determine anatomical correlations. Modern scanners can integrate PET, enabling PET-CT, or PET-MRI to optimize the reconstruction of images involved with positron imaging. This is done on the same equipment without physically removing the patient from the gantry. The combined results of functional and anatomical imaging information are useful tools in non-invasive diagnosis and patient management.

Fiduciary markers are used in a wide range of medical imaging applications. The same subject image produced with two different imaging systems may be correlated (called image registration) by placing fiduciary markers in areas imaged by both systems. In this case, the markers seen in the images produced by both imaging modalities should be used. With this method, the functional information of SPECT or positron emission tomography can be attributed to the anatomical information provided by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Similarly, fiduciary points formed during MRI can be correlated with brain images generated by magnetoencephalography to localize the source of brain activity.

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Medical ultrasonography uses high-frequency broadband sound waves in the megahertz range that are reflected by the network to various levels to produce (up to 3D) images. This is commonly associated with fetal imaging in pregnant women. However, the use of ultrasound is much wider. Other important uses include imaging of the abdominal organs, heart, breast, muscles, tendons, arteries and veins. Although it may provide less anatomical details than techniques such as CT or MRI, it has several advantages that make it ideal in a variety of situations, especially those that study the functionality of moving structures in real-time, radiating no ionizing radiation, and containing speckles that can be used in elastography. Ultrasound is also used as a popular research tool for capturing raw data, which can be made available through the ultrasound research interface, for the purpose of network characterization and the implementation of new image processing techniques. The ultrasound concept is different from other medical imaging modalities in the fact that it is operated by the transmission and reception of sound waves. High frequency sound waves are sent to the network and depend on different network compositions; the signal will be attenuated and returned at a separate interval. The sound wave bands reflected in the multilayered structure can be defined by the input of the acoustic impedance (ultrasound sound wave) and the reflection and transmission coefficients of the relative structure. Very safe to use and not cause adverse effects. It's also relatively inexpensive and quick to do. The ultrasound scanner can be brought to the critically ill patient in the intensive care unit, avoiding the dangers posed when moving the patient to the radiology department. Real time moving images can be used to guide drainage and biopsy procedures. Doppler capability on modern scanners allows blood flow in the arteries and veins to be assessed.

Elastography

Elastography is a relatively new imaging modality that maps the elastic properties of soft tissue. This modality has emerged in the last two decades. Elastography is useful in medical diagnoses, because elasticity can differentiate healthily from unhealthy tissues to specific organs/growths. For example, a cancerous tumor is often more difficult than the surrounding tissue, and a sore liver is harder than a healthy one. There are several elastographic techniques based on the use of ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging and tactile imaging. The widespread clinical use of ultrasound elastography is the result of applying technology in clinical ultrasound machines. The main branches of ultrasound elastography include Quasistatic Elastography/Strain Imaging, Shear Wave Elasticity Imaging (SWEI), Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse Imaging (ARFI), Supersonic Shear Imaging (SSI), and Elastography Transient. In the last decade the steady increase in activity in the field of observed elastography demonstrates the successful application of technology in various areas of medical diagnostics and treatment monitoring.

Photoacoustic imaging

Photoacoustic imaging is a recently developed hybrid biomedical imaging modality based on photoacoustic effects. It combines the advantages of optical absorption contrast with ultrasonic spatial resolution for deep imaging in diffuse (optical) or quasi-diffusive regimes. Recent studies have shown that photoacoustic imaging can be used in vivo for monitoring of tumor angiogenesis, blood oxygenation mapping, functional brain imaging, and skin melanoma detection, etc.

Tomography

Tomography is imaging by section or sectioning. The main methods in medical imaging are:

• X-ray computed tomography (CT), or Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) scan, is a helical tomography technique (the latest generation), which traditionally produces 2D images of structures in thin body parts.. In CT, a beam of X-rays rotates around the object being examined and taken by a sensitive radiation detector after it has penetrated the object from various angles. The computer then analyzes the information received from the scanner detector and compiles detailed images of the object and its contents using mathematical principles laid out in a Radon transform. It has a dose load of ionizing radiation greater than the projection radiography; repeated scans should be limited to avoid health effects. CT is based on the same principle as X-Ray projection but in this case, the patient is flanked by an adjacent detector ring assigned with a 500-1000 (X-Ray CT scanner geometry fourth generation) scintillation detector. Previously in older generation scanners, X-Ray rays were paired by source and translation detector. Computed tomography almost completely replaces focus field tomography in X-ray tomography imaging.
• Positron emission tomography (PET) is also used in conjunction with computed tomography, PET-CT, and PET-MRI magnetic resonance imaging.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) generally produces cross-sectional tomographic images of the body. (See the separate section of the MRI in this article.)

Echocardiography

When USG is used for heart images it is called an echocardiogram. Echocardiography allows detailed heart structure, including space size, heart function, heart valve, and pericardium (the sac around the heart) to be seen. Echocardiography uses 2D, 3D, and Doppler imaging to create heart images and visualize the blood flowing through each of the four heart valves. Echocardiography is widely used in various patients ranging from those who experience symptoms, such as shortness of breath or chest pain, to those who undergo cancer treatment. Ultrasound transthoracic has been shown to be safe for patients of all ages, from infants to the elderly, without the risk of harmful side effects or radiation, distinguishing it from other imaging modalities. Echocardiography is one of the most commonly used imaging modalities in the world because of its portability and usage in various applications. In emergency situations, echocardiography is fast, accessible, and can be done by the bedside, making it the preferred option for many doctors.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy

FNIR is a relatively new non-invasive imaging technique. NIRS (near infrared spectroscopy) is used for functional neuroimaging purposes and has been widely accepted as a brain imaging technique.

Magnetic Particle Imaging

Using superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, magnetic particle imaging (MPI) is a growing diagnostic imaging technique used to track superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. The main advantages are high sensitivity and specificity, along with lack of signal loss with tissue depth. MPI has been used in medical research to describe cardiovascular performance, neuroperfusion, and cell tracking.


Maps Medical imaging





In pregnancy

Medical imaging may be indicated in pregnancy because of complications of pregnancy, infectious disease or routine pregnancy care. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) without MRI contrast agents as well as midwifery ultrasound is not associated with any risk to the mother or fetus, and imaging techniques of choice for pregnant women. Proximional radiography, X-ray computed tomography and nuclear drug imaging produce some degree of ionizing radiation exposure, but have some exceptions with lower absorbed doses than what is associated with fetal harm. At higher doses, the effect may include miscarriage, birth defects and intellectual disabilities.



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Maximizing the use of imaging procedures

The amount of data obtained in one MR or CT scan is very wide. Some data released by radiologists can save patients time and money, while reducing radiation exposure and the risk of complications from invasive procedures. Another approach to making the procedure more efficient is based on the use of additional constraints, for example, in some medical imaging modalities one can improve data acquisition efficiency by considering the fact of positive reconstructed density.



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Create three-dimensional images

Volume rendering techniques have been developed to enable CT, MRI and ultrasound scanning software to produce 3D images for physicians. Traditionally CT scans and MRIs produce 2D static output on film. To produce 3D images, many scans are created, then combined by the computer to generate 3D models, which can then be manipulated by doctors. 3D ultrasound is produced using a somewhat similar technique. In diagnosing diseases of the abdominal viscera, ultrasound is particularly sensitive to imaging of the bile ducts, urinary tract and female reproductive organs (ovaries, fallopian tubes). Such as, for example, the diagnosis of gallstones with bile duct dilation and common stones in the bile ducts. With the ability to visualize important structures in great detail, 3D visualization methods are a valuable resource for the diagnosis and treatment of many pathology surgeries. It was a key resource for a notorious effort, but ultimately failed by Singapore surgeons to separate Iranian twins Ladan and Laleh Bijani in 2003. 3D equipment was used previously for similar operations with great success.

Other proposed or developed techniques include:

• Diffused optical tomography
• Elastography
• tomographic impedance
• Optoacoustic Imaging
• Ophthalmology
  • A scan
  • B-scan
  • Topographic cornea
  • Optical coherence tomography
  • Scan an ophthalmoscopy laser

Some of these techniques are still in the research stage and have not been used in clinical routines.



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Non-diagnostic imaging

Neuroimaging has also been used in experimental circumstances to allow people (especially persons with disabilities) to control outside devices, acting as brain computer interfaces.

Many medical imaging software applications (3DSlicer, ImageJ, MIPAV, ImageVis3D, etc.) are used for non-diagnostic imaging, especially since they do not have FDA approval and are not allowed to be used in clinical research for patient diagnosis. Note that many studies of clinical studies are not designed for patient diagnosis.



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Archive and record

Used primarily in ultrasound imaging, capturing images produced by medical imaging devices is necessary for archiving applications and telemedicine. In most scenarios, frame grabber is used to capture video signals from medical devices and send them to a computer for further processing and operation.

DICOM

The Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine standard (DICOM) is used globally to store, exchange and transmit medical images. The DICOM standard incorporates protocols for imaging techniques such as radiography, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasonography, and radiation therapy. DICOM includes standards for exchanging images (for example, via portable media such as DVDs), image compression, 3-D visualization, image presentations, and results reporting.

Compression of medical images

The medical imaging technique generates enormous amounts of data, mainly from CT, MRI and PET modalities. As a result, the storage and communication of electronic image data becomes a barrier without using compression. JPEG 2000 is the advanced DICOM image compression standard for medical image storage and transmission. Fees and feasibility of accessing large image data sets over low or diverse bandwidths are further handled using another DICOM standard, called JPIP, to enable efficient streaming of JPEG 2000 compressed image data.

Medical imaging in the cloud

There is a tendency to migrate from PACS to Cloud Based RIS. A recent article by Applied Radiology says, "Because the digital imaging world is embraced throughout health care companies, the rapid transition from terabytes to petabytes of data has put radiology in the gap of information overload." Cloud computing offers the future imaging department a tool for managing data is much smarter. "



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Use in pharmacy clinical trial

Medical imaging has become a major tool in clinical trials because it allows rapid diagnosis with visualization and quantitative assessment.

Typical clinical trials are conducted through several phases and may take up to eight years. End points or clinical outcomes are used to determine whether the therapy is safe and effective. Once a patient reaches the end point, he is generally excluded from further experimental interactions. Experiments that rely solely on clinical endpoints are very expensive because they have a long period of time and tend to require large numbers of patients.

In contrast to clinical endpoints, replacement endpoints have been shown to reduce the time needed to ascertain whether a drug has clinical benefits. Biomarker imaging (characteristics measured objectively with imaging techniques, used as indicators of pharmacological response to therapy) and replacement endpoints have shown to facilitate the use of small group sizes, obtaining rapid results with good statistical strength.

Imaging is able to reveal subtle changes that indicate the development of therapies that may be missed by a more subjective and traditional approach. Statistical bias is reduced because findings are evaluated without direct patient contact.

Imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are routinely used in the field of oncology and neuroscience. For example, measurement of tumor shrinkage is a common endpoint replacement used in the evaluation of solid tumor responses. This allows for a quicker and more objective assessment of the effects of anticancer drugs. In Alzheimer's disease, an MRI scan of the entire brain can accurately assess the level of hippocampal atrophy, while PET scans can measure brain metabolic activity by measuring regional glucose metabolism, and beta-amyloid plaques using tracers such as Pittsburgh compound B (PiB). Historically less used quantitative medical imaging has been made in other areas of drug development despite growing interest.

An imagery-based test will usually consist of three components:

1. Realistic imaging protocols. This protocol is a standard outline (as far as practically possible) the way in which images are obtained using various modalities (PET, SPECT, CT, MRI). This includes the specifications in which images will be stored, processed, and evaluated.
2. The imagery center is responsible for collecting images, performing quality control and providing tools for data storage, distribution, and analysis. It is important for images obtained at different time points shown in the standard format to maintain the reliability of the evaluation. Certain specialized imaging contract research organizations provide end-to-end medical imaging services, from protocol design and site management to data quality assurance and image analysis.
3. Clinical sites that recruit patients to produce images to be sent back to the imaging center.



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Protect

Lead is the main material used for radiographic shielding against scattered X-rays.

In magnetic resonance imaging, there is an MRI RF shield as well as a magnetic shield to prevent external interference of image quality.



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Privacy protection

Medical imaging is generally covered by medical privacy laws. For example, in the United States the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) provides restrictions for healthcare providers regarding the use of protected health information, which is individually identifiable information relating to past physical or mental health, current or future in front of each individual. Although no definite legal decision has been made in this regard, at least one study has shown that medical imaging may contain biometric information that can identify a person uniquely, and thus qualify as a PHI.

The UK General Medical Council ethics guidelines show that the Board does not require approval before the secondary use of X-ray images.



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Copyright

United States

Appropriate Compendium: Chapter 300 by the US Copyright Office, "The office will not register works produced by machines or only mechanical processes that operate randomly or automatically without the input or creative intervention of a human author." including "Medical imaging produced by x-rays, ultrasounds, magnetic resonance imaging, or other diagnostic equipment." This position is different from the extensive copyright protection provided for the photo. Although the Compendium of Copyright is the legal interpretation of the institution and is not legally binding, the court tends to pay homage to it if they consider it reasonable. However, there is no US federal law law that directly addresses the issue of x-ray image rights.

Derivatives

The broad definition of the term derivative works is given by the United States Copyright Act in 17 U.S.C.Ã,§Ã, 101:

"Derivative works" are works based on one or more pre-existing works, such as translations... art reproduction, abrasion, condensation, or other forms in which a work may be modified, altered, or adapted. A work consisting of editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications which, on the whole, are original author's works, are "derivative works".

17 U.S.C.§ 103 (b) menyediakan:

The copyright in the compilation or derivative works only applies to the material contributed by the author of the work, as distinguished from the pre-existing material used in the work, and does not imply any exclusive rights in any pre-existing material. The copyright in the work does not depend on, and does not affect or enlarge the scope, duration, ownership, or subsistence of any copyright protection in pre-existing materials.

German

In Germany, X-ray images and MRT, ultrasound, PET, and scintigraphy images are protected by associated rights (copyright) or neighbor rights. This protection does not require creativity (as is necessary for ordinary copyright protection ) and lasts only 50 years after drawing, if not published in 50 years, or for 50 years after the first legitimate publication. The legal letter grants this right to "Lichtbildner" [9], ie the person who created the image. The literature seems to uniformly consider medical doctors, dentists or veterinarians as rights holders, which may be due to the circumstance that in Germany many x-rays are done in an outpatient setting and that doctors arrange arrangements for individual imaging.

United Kingdom

Medical images made in the UK will usually be protected by copyright because "high levels of skill, labor, and assessment are required to produce good quality x-rays, especially to show the contrast between bone and soft tissues." The Society of Radiographers believes this copyright is owned by the employer (unless the radiographist is an entrepreneur - though then their contract may require them to transfer ownership to the hospital). These copyright owners may grant certain permissions to whomever they wish, without relinquishing their ownership of the copyright. So hospitals and employees will be given permission to use these radiographic images for the various purposes they need for medical care. Doctors working in hospitals will, in their contracts, be given the right to publish patient information in the journal papers or books they write (provided they are made anonymous). Patients can also be given permission to "do what they like with" their own images.

Swedish

The Cyber ​​Law in Sweden (p. 96) states: "Images may be protected as photographic works or as photographic images.The former requires a higher degree of originality, the latter protecting all types of photos, as well as photos taken by amateurs, or in medicine or science.This protection requires some kind of photography techniques used, including digital cameras and laser-made holograms.The difference between the two types work is a protection term, which amounts to seventy years after the death of a photographic writer contrary to fifty years, from the year when photographic photography was taken. "

Medical imaging may be included in the "photographic" scope, similar to a US statement that "MRI images, CT scans, and the like are analogous to photography."



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Note




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References




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Further reading

• A good comprehensive yet comprehensive pre-dated Medical Introduction: Cho, Zang-Hee, Joie P. Jones, and Manbir Singh. Medical imaging foundation. New York :: Wiley, 1993. ISBNÃ, 0-471-54573-2
• Eisenberg, Ronald L.; Margulis, Alexander R: Patient Guide for Medical Imaging. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBNÃ, 978-0-19-972991-3
• Jayaram K. Udupa, Gabor T. Herman "3D Imaging in Medicine, Second Edition" 2 28 September 1999 by CRC Press



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External links

• Medical imaging in Curlie (based on DMOZ)
• IPRG Open Group associated with image processing research resources

Source of the article : Wikipedia